Autism and Emotional Connections With Distant Family Membets

J Autism Dev Disord. Author manuscript; bachelor in PMC 2020 Jul 24.

Published in final edited class equally:

PMCID: PMC7380567

NIHMSID: NIHMS1599502

Family Emotional Climate and Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Emily J. Hickey

¹Homo Development and Family Studies Department, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, USA.

²General Academic Pediatrics, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston Medical Center, 301 Vose Building, Boston, MA, 02118, USA.

Robert Zip

ⁱⁱⁱMan Development and Family Studies Department, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Usa.

Sigan L Hartley

³Homo Development and Family Studies Section, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, USA.

Abstract

Little inquiry has examined family unit emotional climate in the context of having a child with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The goal of the current study was to make up one's mind how the emotional quality of family subsystems (parent-child and parent couple relationships, for both mothers and fathers) combine to create diverse classes of family emotional climate and to identify predictors of course membership in 148 families of children with ASD. The emotional quality of family subsystems was assessed using Five Minute Speech Samples from mothers and fathers. In total, 148 families of children with ASD (86% male) aged 6–thirteen years were included in analyses. Virtually i-third of parents did not have a college degree and more than ii-thirds were of not-Hispanic White origin. Latent course analyses revealed that 43% of the sample was characterized by high levels of warmth and low levels of criticism in both the parent-child and parent couple relationships; 12% of the sample was characterized past depression warmth and loftier criticism in both sets of relationships; and the residual of the sample was divided amongst three boosted classes of emotional climate characterized by unlike configurations of warmth and criticism across both sets of relationships. Parent level of broader autism phenotype (BAP) and child emotional and behavioral bug were associated with emotional climate class membership. Implications for interventions are discussed.

Keywords: Family, Autism, Expressed Emotion, Parent, Parent-child, Couple, Marital, Five Infinitesimal Spoken language Sample, Warmth, Criticism

At that place is substantial prove that the emotional quality of family subsystems, including the parent-child relationship and parent couple relationship, is a critical determinant of child development (Brock & Kochanska, 2015; Kopala-Sibley et al., 2017). Expressed emotion is a research construct intended to capture the emotional quality of family subsystems through the V Minute Voice communication Sample (FMSS), in which individuals speak almost a family unit member and their dyadic relationship (Magaña, 1986). 2 previously defined codes obtained from the FMSS include the level of criticism (i.e., dissatisfaction and/or negative comments) and warmth (i.e., interest, concern, and empathy), expressed near the family unit member and dyadic relationship. These two codes have been shown to mirror the emotional quality of observed family interactions (Weston, Hawes, & Pasalich, 2017). Research on the general (Labella, Narayan, & Masten, 2016), neurodevelopmental disability (Romero-Gonzalez, Chandler, & Simonoff, 2018), and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) populations (Baker, Smith, Greenberg, Seltzer, & Taylor, 2011; Smith, Greenberg, Seltzer, & Hong, 2008) has used the FMSS to examine the emotional quality of the mother-child human relationship. However, little FMSS research has assessed the emotional quality of other family dyads – such as the begetter-child and parent couple relationships – and about naught is known about how emotional quality across family unit subsystems combines to create classes of family emotional climate. The goal of the current study was to identify classes of family emotional climate, and their predictors, in families of children with ASD.

Introduction

Emotional Quality of Family Subsystems and ASD

In the U.s.a., information technology is estimated that 1 in 59 children meet diagnostic criteria for ASD (Centers for Illness Control and Prevention, 2018), a neurodevelopmental disability involving difficulties in social advice and restricted and repetitive interests and behaviors (American Psychiatric Clan, 2013). About 1 in three children with ASD also have intellectual disability (Centers for Affliction Control and Prevention, 2018) and about 1 in 2 have co-occurring emotional and behavioral problems such every bit anxiety and inattention (e.g., McStay, Dissanayake, Scheeren, Koot, & Begeer, 2014).

This profile of child-related challenges may shape the emotional quality of family subsystems. As a group, parents of children with ASD are at chance for a high level of parenting stress (Estes et al., 2013) and poor psychological well-existence, including low and anxiety (Cohrs & Leslie, 2017), relative to other parents. In non-ASD populations, loftier parenting stress and poor parental psychological well-beingness is associated with distant and disquisitional parent-child interactions (Mackler et al., 2015). Equally a group, parents of children with ASD likewise report less satisfying parent couple relationships (Sim et al., 2016) and more couple conflicts (Hartley et al., 2017), and are at greater risk for separation/divorce (Baeza-Velasco, Michelon, Rattaz, Pernon, & Baghdadli, 2013; Hartley et al., 2010) than parents of children without ASD. Thus, parents of children with ASD may also be at run a risk for negative emotional quality parent couple relationships. Despite these group-level risks, there is variability among parents of children with ASD in these studies, with a subset of parents reporting more positive parent-child and parent couple relationship experiences.

In previous studies using the FMSS with parents of young and grown children with ASD, 12–18% of mothers expressed high criticism toward their son/daughter with ASD (Baker et al., 2011; Griffith, Hastings, Petalas, & Lloyd, 2015), and 20–40% expressed loftier warmth (Griffith et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2008). It is not clear if the emotional quality of the father-child relationship differs from that of the mother-child relationship. Mothers of children with ASD take been found to written report a college level of parenting stress (Foody, James, & Leader, 2015), and to take on more daily parenting responsibilities (Callander & Lindsay, 2018), than fathers, which may put the mother-child relationship at greater risk for high criticism and low warmth.

Research on the general population has used the FMSS to examine emotional quality in the couple human relationship (Favez, Cairo, Notari, Anotnini, & Charvoz, 2017; Iles, Spiby, & Slade, 2014). In these studies, women were more probable to limited high criticism toward their partner than men (62% vs. 49%, respectively; Favez et al., 2017). In that location are no published FMSS studies of parent couple relationship quality in families of children with ASD. Given their group-level risk for unsatisfying, disharmonize-ridden, and shorter-term couple relationships (Sim et al., 2016; Hartley et al., 2010; Hartley et al., 2017), many families of children with ASD may consist of one or both parents expressing low warmth and high criticism toward her/his partner.

Predictors of Family Emotional Climate

In improver to identifying various classes of family emotional climate evident in families of children with ASD, information technology is important to identify predictors of class membership to direct intervention. Longitudinal studies take shown positive bidirectional associations between the severity of child ASD symptoms and emotional and behavioral problems and levels of parenting stress (Rodriguez, Hartley, & Bolt, 2019; Zaidman-Zarit et al., 2014). Previous research also has demonstrated negative bidirectional associations between the severity of child ASD symptoms and emotional and behavioral issues and optimal parent psychological well-existence (Yorke et al., 2018). In a transactional process, the challenging behavior of a child with ASD may alter the parent-child relationship in means that elicit negative parent responses which, in plough, reinforce the challenging beliefs of the child (Guralnick, 2011). Families who have a child with more severe ASD symptoms and emotional and behavioral problems may thus exist at run a risk for a negative (i.east., high criticism and low warmth) parent-child relationship.

The genetic etiology of ASD (Schaefer & Mendelsohn, 2013) may also shape the emotional quality of family subsystems. Multiplex families involve having multiple family unit members affected by ASD or related atmospheric condition. Across studies, 15–21% of parents of children with ASD (compared to 4–viii% of other parents) demonstrate the broader autism phenotype (BAP; Bora, Aydın, Saraç, Kadak, & Köse, 2017), involving cognitive rigidity, anxious personality traits, and social difficulties (Losh, Childress, Lam, & Piven, 2008). Parent level of BAP has been found to exist associated with lower couple relationship satisfaction (Pruitt, Rhoden, & Ekas, 2018), and thus may be associated with negative emotional quality in parent couple relationships. It is not however known if parent level of BAP is associated with the emotional quality of the parent-child human relationship. Approximately xx% of siblings of children with ASD are diagnosed with ASD (Messinger et al., 2015), and 10–32% accept some other type of neurodevelopmental disability or psychiatric condition (Jokiranta-Olkoniemi, Cheslack-Postava, & Sucksdorff, 2016). Having multiple affected children is associated with a high level of parenting stress (Orsmond, Lin, & Seltzer, 2007), and thus may be linked to a negative quality parent-child relationship.

Spillover versus Difference

Theory and empirical evidence indicate that the emotional quality of one family subsystem predicts the emotional quality of other family subsystems. Within family unit systems theory (Fine & Fincham, 2013), the spillover hypothesis posits that tension, negative affect, and conflict generated in 1 family subsystem carries into other family subsystems (Almeida, Wethington, & Chandler, 1999). For example, criticism in the parent-kid relationship may lead to criticism in the parent couple human relationship, and vice versa. In that location is bear witness that spillover is most prominent under conditions of chronic stress or poor psychological resources (Almeida et al., 1999). Indeed, in a previous study based on the electric current sample, we institute that daily parenting stress co-varied with daily parent couple relationship quality at a within-parent level and was greatest if the child had a high severity of ASD symptoms and emotional and behavioral issues (citation removed for blind review). In the general population, however, in that location is evidence that spillover furnishings are not limited to a within-parent level. Instead, crossover effects take been found in which stress in one parent shapes the family relationships of the other parent (Falconier, Nussbeck, Bodenmann, Schneider, & Bradbury, 2014; Newland, Ciciolla, & Crnic, 2015). Equally a upshot, high criticism and low warmth in the parent-kid relationship of one parent may atomic number 82 to high criticism and depression warmth in the parent-child and/or parent couple relationship of the other parent. Thus, families reporting high kid-related challenges (severe child ASD symptoms and/or emotional and behavioral problems) may exist at risk for negative emotional quality across all family relationships (parent-kid and parent couple relationships, in mothers and fathers).

On the other hand, the divergence hypothesis suggests that parents may recoup for one negative family unit subsystem by devoting boosted time and energy into some other (Erel & Burman, 1995). Indeed, some parents of children with ASD have described forming a stronger couple human relationship (e.1000., deeper commitment and intimacy) as a effect of child challenges (Hock, Timm, & Ramisch, 2012). Alternatively, ane parent may compensate for his/her partner's negative parent-child relationship through her/his own positive parent-child human relationship. Indeed, many families consist of one emotionally supportive parent and one emotionally detached or negative parent in the general population (Ryan, Martin, & Brooks-Gunn, 2006).

Electric current Report

The outset aim of the current study was to characterize and compare FMSS criticism and warmth in the female parent-child, begetter-child, female parent-spouse, and father-spouse relationships in 148 families of children with ASD (aged 6 −13 years). Given testify that mothers assume a disproportionate amount of daily parenting responsibilities in families of children with ASD (Callander & Lindsay, 2018), and often report a higher level of parenting stress than fathers (Foody et al., 2015), mothers were hypothesized to limited high criticism and low warmth in the parent-child human relationship more frequently than fathers. Based on FMSS research on the general population (Favez et al., 2017), mothers of children with ASD were expected to express high criticism nigh the parent couple relationship more often than fathers.

The second aim of the study was to identify classes of family unit emotional climate using latent class analysis of the FMSS with these families of children with ASD. Nosotros hypothesized that some classes of families would be consistent with the spillover hypothesis (e.grand., Almeida et al., 1999) and involve crossover effects (Falconier et al., 2014) of criticism and warmth across family relationships. We hypothesized that other classes of families would be consistent with the divergence hypothesis, exhibiting opposing emotional quality beyond family unit relationships.

The third aim of the written report was to identify predictors of class membership. In line with the spillover hypothesis (east.g., Almeida et al., 1999) and crossover effects (Falconier et al., 2014), families undergoing high child-related challenges (i.due east., higher severity of child ASD symptoms and emotional and behavioral problems) and multiplex families (i.e., having an additional child with a neurodevelopmental disability or psychiatric status and parent level of BAP) were expected to exist in a latent course involving depression warmth and loftier criticism across all family relationships based on evidence of high parenting (Orsmond et al., 2007) and couple relationship distress (Pruit et al., 2018).

Method

Participants

The present written report used data from 148 families who were participating in a longitudinal written report of female parent-father couples who had a child with ASD. ¹ In 2 families, the parents were not married, only had lived together for more than v years. In 6 families, one parent was a step-parent who had been involved in the child's life for at least three years. In 4 families, the child was adopted at least 4 years agone. Mothers had an average age of 39.52 years (SD = 5.sixty) and 28% (n = 42) did not have a college degree. Fathers had an average age of 41.57 years (SD = 6.25) and 38% (n = 56) did not have a college degree. The majority of parents identified as not-Hispanic White (n = 257, 87%). Remaining parents identified as African American (n = two, 1%), Hispanic White (n = 25, 8%), American Indian (north = two, 1%), Asian or Pacific Islander (due north = 9, 3%), or multiple ethnicities (n = 4, one%). Mean household income was $80,000–89,000. Overall, 36% (north = 53) of families had an additional kid (or children) with a disability or psychiatric status. The majority of the target children with ASD were male (due north = 127, 86%). On average they were 9.05 years old (SD = two.26, range = 6–13), and 52 (35%) target children with ASD had intellectual inability.

Recruitment

Families were recruited through fliers posted at ASD clinics and in community settings (eastward.one thousand., libraries), mailings to schools, and research registries. Original study inclusion criteria included existence a parent of a child aged 5 to 12 years who was diagnosed with ASD and beingness office of a longstanding cohabiting couple human relationship for at least 3 years in which both partners were willing to participate. Parents provided medical or educational records documenting the child'south ASD diagnosis and the diagnostic evaluation had to have included the Autism Diagnosis Observation Schedule (Lord et al., 2012; Lord et al., 2000). In addition, the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS-2; Constantino & Gruber, 2012) was used to verify current ASD symptoms; children had to take a SRS-2 Total T-score ≥ 60. For families who had more than 1 child with ASD (n = 10), the oldest kid was the target child in the study every bit this is when parenting in the context of ASD began.

Procedures

Parents reported on family unit socio-demographics and independently completed questionnaires during a 2.5-hour in person lab or home visit. All parents spoke English. Parents who preferred Spanish (due north = six) were given standardized questionnaires in both English and Spanish when available and a Spanish-speaking research staff member conducted their interview. Each parent was paid $50 at the completion of the visit.

Measures

FMSS Emotional Climate.

The FMSS (Magaña et al., 1986) was conducted in person and individually with parents in separate rooms and so they could non hear one another. Both mothers and fathers were asked most their child with ASD then their spouse/partner. In the FMSS, parents were given the prompt: "I'd like to hear your thoughts and feelings most (kid'southward name / spouse's proper name), in your own words and without my interrupting with whatever questions or comments. When I enquire you to begin, I'd like you to speak for v minutes, telling me what kind of person (kid's name / spouse's name) is and how the ii of y'all get along together. Afterward yous begin to speak, I adopt not to answer whatsoever questions until after the 5 minutes. Practice yous have any questions earlier we begin?" Past eliciting open-ended responses based on the general FMSS prompt, rather than asking value-laden questions almost the parent-kid and parent couple relationships that can trigger socially desirable responses, the FMSS is intended to reduce response biases. Each FMSS was sound recorded and transcribed, and and so coded by a trained FMSS rater who was blind to study questions. This rater has undergone formal FMSS training workshops, coded more than a thousand FMSS, and was found to have high inter-rater reliability with 12 other FMSS trained raters (mean inter-rater agreement = 93% [range 80–100%]). FMSS ratings have been found to correlate with observed emotions and behaviors of parents within actual parent-child interactions (Weston et al., 2017), and have high reliability and construct validity with cocky-reported and observed measures of the quality of the parent-child relationship in various populations (Magaña et al., 1986; Van Humbeeck, Van Audenhove, De Hert, Pieters, & Storms, 2002), including in parents of children with neurodevelopmental disabilities (Hastings, Daley, Burns, & Beck, 2006) and ASD, specifically (Greenberg, Seltzer, Hong, & Orsmond, 2006).

Criticism.

Speech samples were rated as high, borderline, or low criticism as recommended by Magaña et al. (1986). High criticism involved making a negative opening remark, negatively describing the relationship, and/or making one or more critical comments (Magaña et al., 1986). Borderline criticism was coded if the parent made one or more statements of dissatisfaction. Low criticism was coded if the parent did not brand whatsoever critical comments. Given the low number of voice communication samples coded equally high criticism (3–five% toward the kid, 7–12% toward partner), a dichotomous FMSS criticism rating was used in analyses in which the high and borderline categories were combined and coded 1 and low criticism was coded 0. The post-obit is from a speech sample rated as 'high criticism':

"Um, when [child's proper noun] is in the picture, which is ever, in that location'due south a lot of tension between everybody. He is very needy, and needs this and needs that, and he tin can't do anything on his ain. He's afraid of everything… Um and I felt very angry with him, and frustrated and trapped that sometimes I don't know what to do."

Warmth.

In addition to those codes for criticism, speech samples also were rated every bit high, deadline, or low warmth as recommended by Vaughn and Leff (1976). High warmth was coded if parents expressed clear warmth based on tone, interest, and spontaneous sympathy, business concern, and empathy. Deadline warmth was coded if parents expressed understanding, sympathy, and concern but only limited warmth of tone and/or a detached attitude. Depression warmth was coded if parents expressed only a slight or no amount of understanding, sympathy, business organisation, enthusiasm, or involvement. Due to the relatively low number of speech samples coded every bit low warmth (0–iii% toward the child, viii–10% toward a partner) a dichotomous FMSS warmth rating was created by combining the low and borderline warmth categories and coded 0 versus high warmth, which was coded 1. The post-obit excerpt is from a sample rated as 'loftier warmth':

"[Child'south name] is, I call up, a groovy person. He's funny. He's thirteen so he can be very moody sometimes, which is typical for thirteen year olds, and I realize that. We bulldoze to schoolhouse every twenty-four hours, so most of the time I really like driving in the car with him. Nosotros don't always agree on the same music, only he'll give mine a try and I'll give his a effort. He tells me funny things."

Family Socio-demographics.

Socio-demographics were reported by parents and included in analyses as command variables if significantly associated with family unit emotional climate class membership. Target child age was coded in years and gender was coded as female = one and male = 0. Target kid intellectual inability was based on medical or educational diagnosis of intellectual disability or if the child met criteria based on review of records reporting IQ and adaptive behavior; it was coded as intellectual disability = 1 and no intellectual disability = 0. Family unit size was the number of children in the family. Duration of the couple relationship was years in a committed relationship. Household income was coded 1–xiv, starting at ≤$9,999 = 1 and increasing past $10,000 to $20,000 intervals to ≥$160,000 = fourteen.

Child-Related Challenges.

Severity of child ASD symptoms was separately reported by each parent using the SRS-ii, a 65-item questionnaire assessing autism symptoms in the by 6 months from 'Non True' = 1 to 'Nigh Always True' = 4. The SRS-2 Total T-score was used and had loftier internal consistency (α= 0.88 for mothers and α = 0.86 for fathers). The severity of child emotional and behavioral bug was assessed past having parents separately charge per unit the Child Behavior Check List (CBCL; Achenback & Rescorla, 2001) which had high internal consistency in our sample (α= 0.91 for mothers and α = 0.90 for fathers). The CBCL Total T-score has been shown to have proficient construct validity in ASD samples (Sikora, Hall, Hartley, Gerrard-Morris, & Cagle, 2008).

Multiplex Families.

The presence of an boosted kid or children with a neurodevelopmental disability, including ASD, or psychiatric disorder was reported on by parents and coded as yep = 1 or no = 0. Parents independently completed the Wide Autism Phenotype Questionnaire (BAPQ; Hurley, Losh, Parlier, Reznick, & Piven, 2007) to assess their own level of BAP. The measure includes 36 statements rated from 'very rarely' = one to 'very often' = half dozen (α= 0.93 for mothers and α = 0.91 for fathers).

Data Assay

Descriptive statistics and histograms were used to examine the distribution of scores on measures and identify whatsoever outliers. Eighteen (6%) parents had missing items on the SRS-2, CBCL, or BAPQ. In all cases, more than than eighty% of items on the mensurate had been completed. A Little's MCAR exam statistic indicated that items were missing at random (p > .05) in all cases. Mean item score imputation for the individual was used to supplant missing items to allow for the calculation of total scores. Thus, mothers and fathers in all 148 couples had scores on all study variables and were included in analyses.

Information analyses and then proceeded in three stages, corresponding to the three study aims. First, phi coefficients were calculated to examine associations among mother and male parent warmth and criticism in the parent-child and parent couple relationships. McNemar'due south tests were used to examine inside-couple mother-male parent differences in these relationships.

2d, latent grade analysis (Collins & Lanza, 2010; Lanza, Dziak, Huang, Wagner, & Collins, 2015) was used to identify subgroups of families characterized by distinct configurations of emotional climate. In this person-oriented approach, classes or subgroups are each composed of families that are similar to i some other, based on their values on a gear up of dichotomous indicator variables. For this study, there were eight such variables: mother warmth in the parent-child relationship, father warmth in the parent-child relationship, mother warmth in the parent couple human relationship, father warmth in the parent couple relationship, female parent criticism in the parent-kid relationship, father criticism in the parent-child human relationship, mother criticism in the parent couple human relationship, and father criticism in the parent couple human relationship. The number of latent classes in the population is determined by which measurement model best represents the data, based on noun theory and model fit criteria, namely relatively lower values on the Akaike information benchmark (AIC) and sample-size adjusted Bayesian information criterion (BIC) and higher values on entropy (Celeux & Soromenho, 1996). A model with fewer meaningful classes was preferred to a model with slightly better fit, but redundant or idiosyncratic small classes (Muthén, 2004). In latent form analysis, each family has a greater than 0% take chances just less than 100% chance of belonging to each class, just families are assigned to the grade in which they had the highest probability of belonging (Johnson & Albert, 2004).

Third, nosotros examined the clan between indicators of child-related challenges (SRS-2 and CBCL) and multiplex families (additional afflicted child and parent level of BAP) and family emotional climate class membership using one-mode repeated measure analyses of variance (MANOVAs). We showtime examined whether family socio-demographics (child historic period, child gender, child intellectual disability condition, family size, parent couple human relationship duration, and household income) were associated with course membership. Any significant family socio-demographics were then controlled for in the analysis examining the association between indicators of kid-related challenges and multiplex families and class membership. Pairwise comparisons were used to identify class differences.

Results

Tabular array i displays the ways, standard deviations, and range for all study variables. Values of skewness and kurtosis were between −i.v and ane.5 for all continuous variables (skew range: −0.49 to 0.77; kurtosis range: −0.75 to 1.33) indicating relatively normal distributions. The target children with ASD had a mean SRS-2 Full T-score of 75.82 (SD = 10.30) equally reported by mothers and 74.47 (SD = 10.52) as reported by fathers. The boilerplate CBCL Total T-score for the target child with ASD was 64.09 (SD = viii.51) every bit reported by mothers and 62.92 (SD = eight.85) equally reported past fathers.

Table 1:

Variable means, standard deviations, and ranges

Variable	Mean	SD	Range
Socio-demographics
Child Age	9.05	ii.26	vi–17
Child Gender	0.14	0.35	0–1
Child Intellectual Inability condition	0.35	0.48	0–1
Rel. Length	12.21	5.sixteen	three–thirty
Household Income	9.00	three.12	2–xiv
FMSS Ratings
Female parent Child Warmth	0.47	0.50	0–1
Female parent Partner Warmth	0.47	0.fifty	0–1
Male parent Child Warmth	0.51	0.50	0–ane
Father Partner Warmth	0.48	0.50	0–i
Mother Child Criticism	0.23	0.42	0–1
Mother Partner Criticism	0.30	0.46	0–i
Father Child Criticism	0.14	0.34	0–i
Father Partner Criticism	0.19	0.39	0–one
Multiplex Families
Addl. Child with Disability	0.36	0.48	0–one
Female parent BAPQ	97.40	22.46	52–185
Male parent BAPQ	108.86	21.34	51–109
Kid-related Challenges
Mother SRS-2	75.82	10.30	49–90
Father SRS-2	74.47	ten.52	49–xc
Mother CBCL	64.09	8.51	44–79
Father CBCL	62.92	8.85	36–79

Female parent versus Father Warmth and Criticism

Overall, 47% of mothers and 51% of fathers expressed loftier warmth toward their child with ASD, and 47% and 48%, respectively, expressed loftier warmth toward their partners. In contrast, 23% of mothers and xiv% of fathers expressed high criticism toward their child with ASD, and thirty% and 19%, respectively, expressed high criticism toward their partners. Tabular array 2 displays the small to pocket-size associations between mothers' and fathers' FMSS criticism and warmth in the parent-child and parent couple relationships. When mothers expressed warmth toward their kid with ASD, they were more likely to limited warmth toward their partners (φ[148] = .34, p < .001); the same was true of criticism (φ[148] = .21, p = .012). Likewise, when fathers expressed warmth toward their kid with ASD, they were more than likely to limited warmth toward their partners (φ[148] = .19, p < .021); the same was truthful of criticism (φ[148] = .21, p = .009). Non surprisingly, neither mothers nor fathers were likely to express both high warmth and high criticism in their relationships with their child with ASD or with each other (φ[148] = [−.40]-[−.56], p < .001). When i parent expressed high warmth or criticism of the child with ASD, the other parent was likely to practise and then every bit well (φ[148] = .22–.30, p < .01), and when ane parent expressed high warmth or criticism of their partner, the emotion was often reciprocal (φ[148] = .29–.55, p < .001).

Table two:

Correlations betwixt variables of interest (N = 148 couples)

Variable	1	2	3	four	5	6	vii
1. Female parent Child Warmth	--
ii. Mother Partner Warmth	0.34***	--
three. Father Child Warmth	0.22**	0.12	--
4. Begetter Partner Warmth	0.24**	0.55***	0.19*	--
5. Mother Kid Criticism	−0.45***	−0.26**	−0.14	−0.11	--
vi. Mother Partner Criticism	−0.07	−0.56***	−0.07	−0.45***	0.21**	--
7. Father Child Criticism	−0.17*	−0.06	−0.twoscore***	−0.18*	0.30***	0.thirteen	--
8. Father Partner Criticism	−0.07	−0.32***	−0.01	−0.46***	0.02	0.29***	0.21**

McNemar'southward tests revealed that mothers were more than likely to express loftier criticism in the parent-child relationship (χ ²= 5.28, p = .022) and parent couple relationship (χ ²= 5.63, p = .018) than fathers, within couples. There were no significant differences between the percentage of mothers versus male parent with high warmth in the parent-kid relationship (χ ²= 0.43, p = .511) or in the parent couple relationship (χ ² = 0.00, p = 1.000), at a within-couple level.

Latent Grade Classes of Family Emotional Climate

Table 3 summarizes the latent grade analysis of family emotional climate, presenting fit statistics for models with two to six latent classes. There was a drop in AIC and sample size adjusted BIC with the addition of each course; still, the magnitude of change betwixt the final 2 models was quite small (0.82 and 2.22, respectively) indicating that the half dozen-grade model was only weakly superior to the five-course model (Rafferty, 1995). There was no comeback in entropy between the five- and half dozen-class models (0.93 in both cases). Moreover, 2 of the classes in the six-class model included a pocket-sized number of families (due north = half-dozen and 9, respectively), raising concerns about outliers and replicability. Further, the last grade in the half dozen-class model made little sense conceptually. Thus, the five-class model was adamant to be optimal based on fit, parsimony, and substantive meaning of the classes.

Tabular array 3:

Latent class analysis fit statistics

No. of Classes	AIC	Adjusted BIC	Entropy
2	233.25	230.63	0.82
3	211.73	207.72	0.88
iv	203.53	198.13	0.85
v	198.92	192.14	0.93
6	198.10	189.92	0.93

Table four presents the percentages of low and high warmth and criticism for mothers and fathers in each class. Effigy ane displays the boilerplate criticism and warmth ratings for each class. There was a Family Resilient grade (Class 1; n = 63 [43% of the sample]) in which both parents in the family unit had low criticism and loftier warmth in both the parent-child and parent couple relationships. Consequent with the spillover hypothesis, there was a Family unit Distressed course (Class 2; north = 18 [12%]) in which both parents had high criticism and low warmth in both the parent-child and parent couple relationships. Iii divergent classes of family unit emotional climate emerged. The Couple Distressed class (Course 3; north = 20 [14%]) consisted of families in which both parents had low criticism and high warmth in the parent-child relationship but loftier criticism and low warmth in the parent couple relationship. The Mother Distressed with Partner form (Form four; due north = 12 [eight%]) involved mothers with low criticism and high warmth in the parent-kid relationship only high criticism and low warmth in the parent couple relationship, whereas fathers had depression criticism and a mixed pattern of warmth in both the parent-child and the parent couple relationships. In the Mother Low Warmth – Father Low Criticism class (Grade 5; n = 35 [24%]), mothers had low warmth, paired with a mix of low or high criticism, in the parent-child and parent couple relationships, whereas fathers had depression criticism and a mix of high or low warmth in the parent-child and parent couple relationships.

Line graph of average female parent and father warmth and criticism in each class.

Table 4:

Class percentages of mother and male parent loftier and low warmth and criticism

	1 Family Resilient (north = 63; 43%)	two Family Distressed (due north = 18; 12%)	3 Couple Distressed (n = 20; 14%)	4 Female parent Distressed with Partner (n = 12; 8%)	five Mother Low Warmth – Father Depression Criticism (n = 35; 24%)
Parent-child relationship
Female parent
Warmth (Loftier/Depression)	.70/.30	.17/.83	.50/.50	one.00/.00	.00/one.00
Criticism (High/Low)	.08/.92	.61/.39	.10/.xc	.00/1.00	.46/.54
Father
Warmth (High/Low)	.64/.37	.00/ane.00	.seventy/.thirty	.58/.42	.xl/.60
Criticism (High/Low)	.03/.97	1.00/.00	.00/1.00	.00/i.00	.00/ane.00
Parent couple relationship
Mother
Warmth (High/Depression)	.97/.03	.33/.67	.15/.85	.00/one.00	.00/1.00
Criticism (High/Low)	.02/.98	.50/.50	.50/.50	.92/.08	.37/.63
Father
Warmth (High/Depression)	.87/.xiii	.17/.83	.00/1.00	.33/.66	.26/.74
Criticism (High/Low)	.00/ane.00	.44/.56	1.00/.00	.00/1.00	.00/1.00

Predictors of Family unit Emotional Climate Form Membership

Tabular array v displays the means and standard deviations for family unit socio-demographics and our key predictor variables by family unit class. A MANOVA indicated that family socio-demographics (child age, gender, and intellectual disability, parent couple relationship length, family unit size, and household income) were not significantly associated with form membership (F [24, 479] = 0.69, p = .863; Wilk'due south Λ = 0.89). Thus, family socio-demographics were non controlled for when assessing the association between child-related challenges (SRS-2 and CBCL score) and multiplex families (additional afflicted children and parent level of BAP).

Table 5:

Descriptive statistics of family unit characteristics in each course and in total sample

Variable	1 Family Resilient (n = 63; 43%)	2 Family Distressed (n = 18; 12%)	3 Couple Distressed (n = 20; xiv%)	four Mother Distress with Partner (n = 12; 8%)	v Mother Low Warmth – Begetter Low Criticism (northward = 35; 24%)	Bonferroni-corrected Divergence past Class
Multiplex Families
Addl. Child with Dis. (N [%])	xviii (29%)	9 (50%)	7 (35%)	6 (50%)	xiv (40%)
Mother BAPQ (Chiliad [SD])	91.13 (17.54)	105.61 (31.97)	94.63 (21.38)	96.17 (25.43)	104.74 (21.65)	i < 5
Father BAPQ (One thousand [SD])	102.23 (21.61)	125.28 (17.51)	114.37 (19.69)	115.25 (19.86)	107.35 (xx.xiv)	1, v < 2
Kid-related Challenges
Mother SRS-2 (M [SD])	73.43 (11.43)	79.44 (viii.15)	75.42 (x.97)	74.75 (9.89)	78.59 (7.93)
Father SRS-2 (M [SD])	72.75 (12.17)	77.33 (half dozen.21)	75.47 (12.02)	74.33 (viii.76)	75.l (8.55)
Mother CBCL (M [SD])	58.93 (11.21)	68.39 (7.15)	65.89 (8.41)	63.67 (6.64)	67.71 (seven.09)	1 < 2, 3, 5
Father CBCL (Chiliad [SD])	59.90 (nine.38)	67.50 (7.52)	63.32 (9.83)	63.92 (vii.56)	65.09 (vi.97)	i < two, 5

A one-way repeated measure MANOVA indicated a significant difference in our key predictor variables by family unit class (F (24, 465) = 2.46, p < .001; Wilk's Λ = 0.66). Tests of between subject area furnishings indicated that family classes differed on mothers' ratings on the CBCL (F (4, 143) = 7.75, p < .001) and fathers' ratings on the CBCL (F (four, 143) = 4.02, p = .004). Pairwise comparisons indicated that mothers' ratings on the CBCL were lower in the Family Resilient class than in the Family unit Distressed, Couple Distressed, and Mother Depression Warmth – Father Low Criticism classes. Fathers' ratings on the CBCL were lower in the Family unit Resilient class than in the Family Distressed and Female parent Low Warmth – Father Depression Criticism classes. Family classes did not significantly differ on mothers' or fathers' rating on the SRS-2.

Tests of between subject furnishings indicated that family classes also significantly differed on mother level of BAP (F (4, 143) = 2.82, p = .027) and father level of BAP (F (four, 143) = 5.26, p = .001). Pairwise comparisons indicated that female parent level of BAP was lower in the Family Resilient course than Female parent Low Warmth – Male parent Depression Criticism course. Begetter level of BAP was lower in the Family Resilient and Female parent Low Warmth – Begetter Low Criticism classes than in the Family Distressed class. Having an additional child with a neurodevelopmental or psychiatric condition was not significantly associated with class membership.

Discussion

The emotional climate of families of children with ASD has only recently received research attention, yet may accept disquisitional implications for the development of children with ASD. It is clear from animal and human genetic and in-utero neurobiological studies that the family environment does not crusade ASD (Celibate & Leboyer, 2012). Information technology is critical for the field to go on to debunk myths that parenting can crusade ASD. Even so, as is true in the general population (Brock & Kochanska, 2015; Kopala-Sibley et al., 2017), family emotional climate is probable to be shaped past child-related factors and, in plow, to shape the performance of children with ASD across fourth dimension. The FMSS offers a reliable and valid way to assess the emotional quality of family relationships. Withal, to date, FMSS research on the ASD population has been limited to the investigation of the mother-child relationship (Bakery et al., 2011; Griffith, et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2008). The current study built on previous inquiry past examining how the emotional quality of various family subsystems (parent-kid and parent couple for mothers and fathers) combine to create classes of family emotional climate and identified predictors of course membership.

Our findings suggest that at that place are female parent-father differences in the emotional quality of the parent-child and parent couple relationships in families of children with ASD. On boilerplate, mothers of children with ASD were more likely than fathers to limited high criticism in the parent-child relationship. This difference may be related to previous findings that mothers written report a higher level of parenting stress (Foody et al., 2015) and tend to take on more daily parenting responsibilities than fathers in families of children with ASD (Callander & Lindsay, 2018). In the current study, we besides plant that mothers were more than likely to express high criticism in the parent couple human relationship than fathers. This difference, also found in non-ASD populations (Favez et al., 2017), may reflect broader gender differences in the experienced or expressed emotional quality of the couple human relationship. Alternatively, there may be something unique about having a kid with ASD that drives mothers to be more disquisitional of their partner than fathers. Mothers' higher average level of parenting stress may contribute to greater stress spillover betwixt the parent-kid and parent couple relationship compared to fathers, who have a lower boilerplate level of parenting stress.

We found that families of children with ASD fit into five different classes of family unit emotional climate. The largest class, 43% of all families, was Family Resilient, involving low criticism and high warmth across all family relationships. Thus, many families appear to be adapting well to child-related challenges associated with ASD. Only 12% of families were in the Family unit Distressed form involving high criticism and low warmth beyond family relationships. In line with the stress spillover hypothesis, stress may showtime in i family unit relationship and and so carry into other family relationships (Almeida et al., 1999), and crossover from i parent to some other (Falconier et al., 2014).

The remaining families exhibited opposing emotional quality beyond subsystems, in line with the divergence hypothesis (Erel & Burman, 1995). Virtually 24% of families were in the Mother Low Warmth – Begetter Low Criticism class, xiv% were in the Couple Distressed course, and 8% were in the Mother Distressed with Partner class. It appears that in many families of children with ASD, one or both parents prevent distress in ane family human relationship from conveying over into other relationships, and/or may compensate for ane negative family subsystem by devoting resources to other family relationships.

In our sample, the severity of emotional and behavioral problems in the child with ASD predicted family emotional climate. The Family unit Resilient class was associated with having a lower mother- and father-rated severity of kid emotional and behavioral problems, every bit indicated past the CBCL. The Family Distressed, Couple Distressed, and Mother Low Warmth – Father Low Criticism classes were associated with having a higher mother- and begetter-rated severity of child emotional and behavioral problems. Thus, families undergoing more child-related challenges appear to be at greater risk for emotionally negative family relationships, and perhaps spillover between the parent-child and parent couple relationships. The emotional and behavioral problems of children with ASD take been plant to exist more strongly associated with parenting stress than children's ASD symptoms (eastward.g., McStay et al., 2014). Efforts to reduce children's emotional and behavioral problems may be most effective in improving family emotional climate.

Multiplex families were at risk for maladaptive classes of family emotional climate. Families in which mothers had a college level of BAP were more likely to be in the Mother Depression Warmth – Father Low Criticism class than the Family Resilient grade. In dissimilarity, families in which fathers had a higher level of BAP were most likely to be in the Family unit Distressed class. The effect of father level of BAP seems to take a toll on overall family emotional climate, whereas the result of mother level of BAP is more localized, simply affecting mothers' family unit relationships. Families of children with ASD in which fathers exhibit a high level of BAP may derive the virtually benefit from family-broad interventions. Previous studies take shown that mothers and fathers who are loftier on BAP have different presentation of ASD-like traits (Klusek, Losh, & Martin, 2014); specifically, fathers exhibited high aloof personality traits, whereas mothers exhibited high pragmatic language and social personality traits. In part, the different upshot of father versus female parent BAP may be due to the different constellation of BAP traits in fathers versus mothers. In dissimilarity to our hypothesis, the presence of an additional child or children with a disability or psychiatric disorder did not predict family emotional climate course.

It is probable that other factors shape family emotional climate class membership, and may explain why some parents announced to exist able to avert spillover and crossover of a negative family subsystem into other family unit subsystems. For example, the Couple Distressed and Mother Distressed with Partner classes involve families with problems in the parent couple relationships but positive parent-kid relationships. In these cases, adaptive co-parenting behaviors appear to negate spillover and crossover effects. Further, child or parent services, such as more therapist hours or a large support network, may increase parent emotional resources and help parents avert spillover and crossover effects. Time to come research should examine these and other potential predictors of family emotional climate.

Study Strengths and Limitations and Future Research

The current study had several strengths. We investigated the parent-child and parent couple relationships in both mothers and fathers of children with ASD, providing a rich family-wide assessment of emotional climate. The written report also employed a well-validated measure of the emotional quality of family relationships via the FMSS, which has been shown to mirror actual family interactions (Weston et al., 2017). As ever, the current study had limitations. Showtime, although the FMSS has been found to accept robust associations with self-report measures assessing the global quality of the parent-child human relationship (Sher-Censor, 2015) and observed interactions (Weston et al., 2017), it is possible that the FMSS is biased toward reflecting recent as opposed to long-standing parent-kid or parent couple relationship experiences. Second, the FMSS and ratings of parent BAP and child emotional and behavioral problems were all based on information from parents, possibly inflating relations among constructs. Third, the electric current report did not include FMSS on a comparison group. Thus, we do non know if mother-father differences and the classes of family emotional quality found in our sample differ from that of families of typically developing children or from families of children with other types of disabilities. Fourth, our sample of families of children with ASD was also adequately homogeneous in race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status and included mother-father co-residing parents. Although family socio-demographics were not associated with family emotional climate in our sample, factors such as household income, chore security, and wellness insurance coverage may be of import predictors of family unit emotional climate class in more diverse samples. Likewise, our finding that 43% of the sample was in the Family Resilient grade may reflect the overall economic stability of the families in this report. Finally, future longitudinal research is needed to determine how family emotional climate shifts across time and impacts the development of children with ASD.

Implication and Clinical Practise

Our findings betoken that the most common course of family emotional climate, occurring in 43% of the sample, was Family unit Resilient with high warmth and low criticism beyond family relationships. It is important to debunk myths that all families of children with ASD are vulnerable. Indeed, many families exhibited positive emotional quality across all family subsystems, and this climate is probable to foster adaptive performance in children with ASD. The remaining 57% of families of children with ASD experienced various combinations of maladaptive family emotional climates. Interventions should be directed toward families in which a parent evidences high BAP and/or the child with ASD has a loftier severity of emotional and behavioral problems, as these factors were constitute to exist associated with maladaptive family unit emotional climate. Interventions should engage the unabridged family, if possible, as parent-child and parent couple relationships are often connected at both a within- and across-parent level. Thus, thinking about the various family unit relationships, parents should exist guided in identifying and recognizing how kid performance can shape the family unit environs (in positive and negative ways), and in turn, how the family environment tin can influence the child with ASD'south emotions and behaviors.

Footnotes

¹The original written report included 187 families. However, this report included only those families in which both parents participated in the in-person portion of the second wave of data collection, when the FMSS was administered. The but departure between the families in the original study and the families in current analyses was that mothers in the original sample were more likely to be ethnically diverse (F = 4.19, p = .042).

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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7380567/